This list includes fossils that are important for either their =
scientific or=20
historic interest, or because they are often mentioned by creationists. =
One=20
sometimes reads that all hominid fossils could fit in a coffin, or on a =
table,=20
or a billiard table. That is a misleading image, as there are now =
thousands of=20
hominid fossils. They are however mostly fragmentary, often consisting =
of single=20
bones or isolated teeth. Complete skulls and skeletons are rare.
The list is sorted by species, going from older to more recent =
species.=20
Within each species, finds are sorted by the order of their discovery. =
Each=20
species has a type=20
specimen which was used to define it.
Each entry will consist of a specimen number if known (or the site =
name, if=20
many fossils were found in one place), any nicknames in quotes, and a =
species=20
name. The species name will be followed by a '?' if suspect. If the =
fossil was=20
originally placed in a different species, that name will also be given. =
The following terminology is used. A skull refers to all the bones of =
the=20
head. A cranium is a skull minus the lower jaw. A braincase is the =
cranium minus=20
the face and upper jaw. A skullcap is the top portion of the braincase. =
Abbreviations: ER East (Lake) Rudolf, Kenya
WT West (Lake) Turkana, Kenya
KP Kanapoi, Kenya
SK Swartkrans, South Africa
Sts,Stw Sterkfontein, South Africa
TM Transvaal Museum, South Africa
OH Olduvai Hominid, Tanzania
AL Afar Locality, Ethiopia
ARA-VP Aramis Vertebrate Paleontology, Ethiopia
BOU-VP Bouri Vertebrate Paleontology, Ethiopia
TM Toros-Menalla, Chad
TM =
266-01-060-1, "Toumai",=20
Sahelanthropus tchadensis Discovered by =
Ahounta=20
Djimdoumalbaye in 2001 in Chad, in the southern Sahara desert. Estimated =
age is=20
between 6 and 7 million years. This is a mostly complete cranium with a =
small=20
brain (between 320 and 380 cc). (Brunet et al. 2002, Wood 2002) It has =
many=20
primitive apelike features, such as the small brainsize, along with =
others, such=20
as the brow ridges and small canine teeth, which are characteristic of =
later=20
hominids.
"ARA-VP, Sites 1, 6 & 7", Ardipithecus ramidus Discovered by a team =
led by Tim=20
White, Berhane Asfaw and Gen Suwa (1994) in 1992 and 1993 at Aramis in =
Ethiopia.=20
Estimated age is 4.4 million years. The find consisted of fossils from =
17=20
individuals. Most remains are teeth, but there is also a partial lower =
jaw of a=20
child, a partial cranium base, and partial arm bone from 2=20
individuals. ARA-VP-6/1 consists of 10 teeth from a single=20
individual. ARA-VP-7/2 consists of parts of all three bones from the =
left arm=20
of a single individual, with a mixture of hominid and ape features.
KP 271, "Kanapoi Hominid", Australopithecus anamensis Discovered by =
Bryan=20
Patterson in 1965 at Kanapoi in Kenya (Patterson and Howells 1967). This =
is a=20
lower left humerus which is about 4.0 million years old. (Creat=
ionist=20
arguments)
KP 29281, Australopithecus =
anamensis Discovered=20
by Peter Nzube in 1994 at Kanapoi in Kenya (Leakey et al. 1995). This is =
a lower=20
jaw with all its teeth which is about 4.0 million years old.
KP 29285, Australopithecus =
anamensis Discovered=20
by Kamoya Kimeu in 1994 at Kanapoi in Kenya. This is a tibia, missing =
the middle=20
portion of the bone, which is about 4.1 million years old. It is the =
oldest=20
known evidence for hominid bipedalism.
AL 129-1, Australopithecus afarensis Discovered by =
Donald =
Johanson=20
in 1973 at Hadar in Ethiopia (Johanson and Edey 1981; Johanson and Taieb =
1976).=20
Estimated age is about 3.4 million years. This find consisted of =
portions of=20
both legs, including a complete right knee joint which is almost a =
miniature of=20
a human knee, but apparently belongs to an adult.
AL 288-1, "Lucy", Australopithecus =
afarensis Discovered=20
by Donald Johanson and Tom Gray in 1974 at Hadar in Ethiopia (Johanson =
and Edey=20
1981; Johanson and Taieb 1976). Its age is about 3.2 million years. Lucy =
was an=20
adult female of about 25 years. About 40% of her skeleton was found, and =
her=20
pelvis, femur (the upper leg bone) and tibia show her to have been =
bipedal. She=20
was about 107 cm (3'6") tall (small for her species) and about 28 kg (62 =
lbs) in=20
weight. (Creationist=20
arguments)
AL 333 Site, "The First Family", =
Australopithecus=20
afarensis? Discovered in 1975 by Donald Johanson's team at Hadar =
in=20
Ethiopia (Johanson and Edey 1981). Its age is about 3.2 million years. =
This find=20
consisted of remains of at least 13 individuals of all ages. The size of =
these=20
specimens varies considerably. Scientists debate whether the specimens =
belong to=20
one species, two or even three. Johanson believes they belong to a =
single=20
species in which males were considerably larger than females. Others =
believe=20
that the larger specimens belong to a primitive species of Homo. =
"Laetoli footprints", Australopithecus=20
afarensis? Discovered in 1978 by Paul Abell at Laetoli in =
Tanzania.=20
Estimated age is 3.7 million years. The trail consists of the fossilized =
footprints of two or three bipedal hominids. Their size and stride =
length=20
indicate that they were about 140 cm (4'8") and 120 cm (4'0") tall. Many =
scientists claim that the footprints are effectively identical to those =
of=20
modern humans (Tattersall 1993; Feder and Park 1989), while others claim =
the big=20
toes diverged slightly (like apes) and that the toe lengths are longer =
than=20
humans but shorter than in apes (Burenhult 1993). The prints are =
tentatively=20
assigned to A. afarensis, because no other hominid species is =
known from=20
that time, although some scientists disagree with that classification. =
(Cre=
ationist=20
arguments)
AL 444-2, Australopithecus =
afarensis Discovered=20
by Bill Kimbel and Yoel Rak in 1991 at Hadar in Ethiopia (Kimbel et al. =
1994).=20
Estimated age is 3 million years. This is a 70% complete skull of a =
large adult=20
male, easily the most complete afarensis skull known, with a =
brain size=20
of 550 cc. According to its finders, it strengthens the case that all =
the First=20
Family fossils were members of the same species, because the differences =
between=20
AL 444-2 and the smaller skulls in the collection are consistent with =
other=20
sexually dimorphic hominoids.
KNM-WT 40000, Kenyanthropus platyops Discovered by Justus =
Erus in=20
1999 at Lomekwi in Kenya (Leakey et al. 2001, Lieberman 2001). Estimated =
age is=20
about 3.5 million years. This is a mostly complete, but heavily =
distorted,=20
cranium with a large, flat face and small teeth. The brain size is =
similar to=20
that of australopithecines. This fossil has considerable similarities =
with, and=20
is possibly related to, the habiline fossil ER =
1470.
"Taung Child", Australopithecus africanus Discovered by =
Raymond =
Dart in 1924=20
at Taung in =
South=20
Africa (Dart 1925). The find consisted of a full face, teeth and jaws, =
and an=20
endocranial cast of the brain. It is between 2 and 3 million years old, =
but it=20
and most other South African fossils are found in cave deposits that are =
difficult to date. The teeth of this skull showed it to be from an =
infant about=20
5 or 6 years old (it is now believed that australopithecines matured =
faster than=20
humans, and that the Taung child was about 3). The brain size was 410 =
cc, and=20
would have been around 440 cc as an adult. The large rounded brain, =
canine teeth=20
which were small and not apelike, and the position of the foramen =
magnum(*)=20
convinced Dart that this was a bipedal human ancestor, which he named Australopithe=
cus=20
africanus (African southern ape). Although the discovery became =
famous,=20
Dart's interpretation was rejected by the scientific community until the =
mid-1940's, following the discovery of other similar fossils.
(*) Anatomical digression: the foramen magnum is the hole in =
the skull=20
through which the spinal cord passes. In apes, it is towards the back of =
the=20
skull, because of their quadrupedal posture. In humans it is at the =
bottom of=20
the skull because our head is balanced on top of a vertical column. In =
australopithecines it=20
is also placed forward from the ape position, although not always as =
far=20
forward as in humans.
TM 1512, Australopithecus africanus (was Plesianthropus=20
transvaalensis) Discovered by Robert =
Broom in 1936=20
at Sterkfontein in =
South=20
Africa (Broom 1936). The second australopithecine fossil found, it =
consisted of=20
parts of the face, upper jaw and braincase.
Sts 5, "Mrs Ples", Australopithecus =
africanus Discovered=20
by Robert Broom in 1947 at Sterkfontein in South Africa. It is a very =
well=20
preserved cranium of an adult. It has usually been thought to be female, =
but=20
there has been a recent claim that it is male. It is the best specimen =
of=20
africanus. It is about 2.5 million years old, with a brain size =
of about=20
485 cc. (It has recently been claimed that the fossils Sts 5 and Sts 14 =
(see next=20
entry) were from the same individual)
Sts 14, Australopithecus africanus Discovered =
by Robert=20
Broom and J.T. Robinson in 1947 at Sterkfontein (Broom and Robinson =
1947).=20
Estimated age is about 2.5 million years. This find consisted of a =
nearly=20
complete vertebral column, pelvis, some rib fragments, and part of a =
femur of a=20
very small adult. The pelvis is more human than apelike, and is strong =
evidence=20
that africanus was bipedal (Brace et al. 1979), although it may =
not have=20
had the strong striding gait of modern humans (Burenhult 1993).
BOU-VP-12/130, Australopithecus garhi Discovered by Yohannes =
Haile-Selassie in 1997 at Bouri in Ethiopia (Asfaw et al. 1999). This is =
a=20
partial skull including an upper jaw with teeth which is about 2.5 =
million years=20
old.
Stw 573, "Little Foot", =
Australopithecus Discovered by=20
Ron Clarke between 1994 and 1997 at Sterkfontein in South Africa. =
Estimated age=20
is 3.3 million years. This fossil consists, so far, of many bones from =
the foot,=20
leg, hand and arm, and a complete skull. More bones are thought to be =
still=20
embedded in rock. (Clarke and Tobias 1995, Clarke 1998, Clarke =
1999)
(An=20
increasing number of scientists are placing the following three species, =
aethiopicus, robustus and boisei, in the genus=20
Paranthropus)=20
KNM-WT 17000, "The Black Skull", Australopithecus aethiopicus Discovered =
by Alan=20
Walker in 1985 near West Turkana in Kenya. Estimated age is 2.5 million =
years.=20
This find is an intact, almost complete cranium. The brain size is very =
small=20
for a hominid, about 410 cc, and the skull has a puzzling mixture of =
primitive=20
and advanced features. (Leakey and Lewin 1992)
TM 1517, Australopithecus robustus (was =
Paranthropus=20
robustus) Discovered by a schoolboy, Gert Terblanche, in 1938 at=20
Kromdraai in South Africa (Broom 1938). It consisted of skull fragments, =
including five teeth, and a few skeletal fragments. This was the first =
specimen=20
of robustus.
SK 48, Australopithecus robustus (was Paranthropus=20
crassidens) Discovered by Mr. Fourie in 1950 at Swartkrans in =
South=20
Africa (Johanson and Edgar 1996). It is a cranium, probably belonging to =
an=20
adult female, and 1.5-2.0 million years old. It is the most complete =
skull of=20
robustus.
DNH 7, "Eurydice", Australopithecus=20
robustus Discovered by Andr=E9 Keyser in 1994 at the Drimolen =
cave in South=20
Africa. Estimated age is between 1.5 and 2.0 million years. This is an =
almost=20
complete skull and lower jaw of a female, one of the most complete =
hominid=20
skulls ever found, and the first significant fossil of a female =
robustus.=20
A fossil of a male robustus lower jaw, nicknamed Orpheus (DNH 8), =
was=20
found a few inches away from it. (Keyser 2000)
OH 5, "Zinjanthropus", "Nutcracker Man", Australopithecus boisei Discovered by Mary =
Leakey in 1959=20
at Olduvai =
Gorge=20
in Tanzania (Leakey 1959). Estimated age is 1.8 million years. It is an =
almost=20
complete cranium, with a brain size is about 530 cc. This was the first =
specimen=20
of this species. Louis Leakey briefly considered this a human ancestor, =
but the=20
claim was dropped when Homo habilis was found soon afterwards. =
KNM-ER 406, Australopithecus boisei Discovered =
by Richard =
Leakey in=20
1969 near Lake Turkana in Kenya. This find was a complete, intact =
cranium=20
lacking only the teeth (Lewin 1987). Estimated age is about 1.7 million =
years.=20
The brain size is about 510 cc. (see also ER =
3733)=20
KNM-ER 732, Australopithecus boisei Discovered by Richard =
Leakey in=20
1970 near Lake Turkana in Kenya. The cranium is similar to that of OH 5, =
but is=20
smaller and has other differences such as the lack of a sagittal crest. =
The=20
estimated age is about 1.7 million years. The brain size is about 500 =
cc. Most=20
experts believe this is a case of sexual dimorphism, with the female =
being=20
smaller than the male.
KGA10-525, Australopithecus =
boisei Discovered=20
by A. Amzaye in 1993 at Konso in Ethiopia (Suwa et al. 1997). This =
fossil=20
consists of much of a skull, including a lower jaw. The estimated age is =
1.4=20
million years. The brain size is estimated to be about 545 cc. Although =
it has=20
many features specific to boisei, it also lies outside the =
previously=20
known range of variation of that species in many ways, suggesting that=20
boisei (and maybe other hominid species) may have been more =
variable than=20
is often thought (Delson 1997).
Homo habilis Discovered by the Leakeys in =
the early=20
1960's at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. A number of fragmentary specimens =
were=20
found (Leakey et al. 1964).
OH 7, "Jonny's Child", found by Jonathon Leakey =
in 1960=20
(Leakey 1961), consisted of a lower jaw and two cranial fragments of a =
child,=20
and a few hand bones. Estimated age is 1.8 million years, and the =
brain size=20
was about 680 cc.
OH 8:=20
found in 1960, consisted of a set of foot bones, complete except for =
the back=20
of the heel and the toes. Estimated age is about 1.8 million years. =
They have=20
a mixture of human and ape traits, but are consistent with bipedal =
locomotion.=20
(Aiello and Dean 1990)
OH 13, "Cindy": found in 1963, consisted of a =
lower jaw=20
and teeth, bits of the upper jaw and a cranial fragment. Estimated age =
is 1.6=20
million years, and the brain size was about 650 cc.
OH 16, "George": found in 1963, consisted of teeth and some very=20
fragmentary parts of the skull. (George was unfortunately trampled by =
Masai=20
cattle before he was found, and much of the skull was lost.) Estimated =
age is=20
1.7 million years, and the brain size was about 640 cc.
OH 24, "Twiggy", Homo habilis Discovered by =
Peter Nzube=20
in 1968 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. It consisted of an fairly complete =
but=20
very badly crushed cranium and seven teeth. It is about 1.85 million =
years old=20
and has a brain size of about 590 cc.
KNM-ER 1470, Homo habilis (or Homo=20
rudolfensis?) Discovered by Bernard Ngeneo in 1972 at Koobi Fora =
in Kenya=20
(Leakey 1973). Estimated age is 1.9 million years. This is the most =
complete=20
habilis skull known. Its brain size is 750 cc, large for =
habilis.=20
It was originally dated at nearly 3 million years old, a figure that =
caused much=20
confusion as at the time it was older than any known australopithecines, =
from=20
whom habilis had supposedly descended. A lively debate over the =
dating of=20
1470 ensued (Lewin 1987; Johanson and Edey 1981; Lubenow 1992). The =
skull is=20
surprisingly modern in some respects. The braincase is much larger and =
less=20
robust than any australopithecine skull, and is also without the large =
brow=20
ridges typical of Homo erectus. It is however very large and =
robust in=20
the face. A number of leg bones were found within a couple of =
kilometers, and=20
are thought to probably belong to the same species. The most complete, =
KNM-ER=20
1481, consisted of a complete left femur, both ends of a left tibia and =
the=20
lower end of a left fibula (the smaller of the two lower leg bones). =
These are=20
quite similar to the bones of modern humans. (Creationist=
=20
arguments)
KNM-ER 1805, "The Mystery Skull", Homo=20
habilis?? Discovered by Paul Abell in 1973 at Koobi Fora in Kenya =
(Leakey=20
1974). Estimated age is 1.85 million years. This find consisted of much =
of a=20
heavily built cranium containing many teeth. Its brain size is about 600 =
cc.=20
Some features, such as the sagittal crest, are typical of A. =
boisei, but=20
the teeth are too small for that species. (Willis 1989; Day 1986) =
Various=20
workers have assigned it to almost every conceivable species, but many =
studies=20
have attributed it to Homo habilis (e.g. Wood 1991). A recent =
cladistic=20
study has placed it outside of Homo and most similar to robust=20
australopithecines, though different from any named species. (Prat =
2002)
KNM-ER 1813, Homo habilis? Discovered by =
Kamoya Kimeu in=20
1973 at Koobi Fora in Kenya (Leakey 1974). This specimen is similar to =
1470, but=20
is much smaller, with a brain size of 510 cc. Estimated age is 1.8-1.9 =
million=20
years. Some scientists believe this a case of sexual dimorphism, others =
believe=20
that the brain architecture is different and that 1813 is another =
species of=20
Homo, and others believe it is an australopithecine. Like the =
previous=20
skull, 1805, this one is in the "Suspense Account". (Willis 1989)
Stw 53, Homo habilis? Discovered by Alun =
Hughes in 1976=20
at Sterkfontein in South Africa (Hughes and Tobias 1977). Estimated age =
is 1.5=20
to 2 million years. It consisted of a number of cranium fragments =
including=20
teeth. Many stone tools were found in the same layer.
OH 62, "Dik-dik hominid", Homo =
habilis Discovered=20
by Tim White in 1986 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania (Johanson and Shreeve =
1989;=20
Johanson et al. 1987). Estimated age is 1.8 million years. The find =
consisted of=20
portions of skull, arm, leg bones and teeth. Almost all the features of =
the=20
skull closely resemble habilis fossils such as OH 24, ER 1813 and =
ER=20
1470, rather than the australopithecines. But the estimated height is =
very=20
small, maybe about 105 cm (3'5"), and the arms are very long in =
proportion to=20
the legs. These are australopithecine traits, and in fact the skeletal =
bones are=20
very similar to those of Lucy. This find is significant because it is =
the only=20
fossil in which limb bones have been securely assigned to =
habilis.=20
Because of the small size, this was almost certainly a female. As with =
the=20
australopithecines, males would have been considerably larger.
OH 65, Homo habilis Discovered in 1995 at =
Olduvai Gorge=20
in Tanzania. This fossil consisted of a complete upper jaw and part of =
the lower=20
face, dated at 1.8 million years. Because of its similarities to the =
fossil ER=20
1470, its finders have suggested that OH 65 may lead to a =
reclassification of=20
the habiline fossils. (Blumenschine et al. 2003, Tobias 2003)
Trinil 2, "Java Man", "Pithecanthropus I", Homo erectus (was Pithecanthropus=20
erectus) Discovered by Eugene =
Dubois in=20
1891 near Trinil on the Indonesian island of Java. Its age is uncertain, =
but=20
thought to be about 700,000 years. This find consisted of a flat, very =
thick=20
skullcap, and a few teeth (which may belong to orang-utans). The =
following year=20
a femur was found about 12 meters away (Theunissen 1989). The brain size =
is=20
about 940 cc. The femur is fully modern, and many scientists now believe =
that it=20
belongs to a modern human. (Creationist=20
arguments)
"Peking Man Site", Homo erectus (was =
Sinanthropus=20
pekinensis) Between 1929 and 1937, 14 partial craniums, 11 lower =
jaws,=20
many teeth, some skeletal bones and large numbers of stone tools were =
discovered=20
in the Lower Cave at Locality 1 of the Peking Man site at Zhoukoudian =
(formerly=20
Choukoutien), near Beijing (formerly Peking), in China. Their age is =
estimated=20
to be between 500,000 and 300,000 years old. (A number of fossils of =
modern=20
humans were also discovered in the Upper Cave at the same site in 1933.) =
The=20
most complete fossils, all of which were braincases or skullcaps, =
are:
Skull III, discovered at Locus E in 1929 is an adolescent or =
juvenile with=20
a brain size of 915 cc.
Skull II, discovered at Locus D in 1929 but only recognized in =
1930, is an=20
adult or adolescent with a brain size of 1030 cc.
Skulls X, XI and XII (sometimes called LI, LII and LIII) were =
discovered=20
at Locus L in 1936. They are thought to belong to an adult man, an =
adult woman=20
and a young adult, with brain sizes of 1225 cc, 1015 cc and 1030 cc=20
respectively. (Weidenreich 1937)
Skull V: two cranial fragments were discovered in 1966 which fit =
with=20
(casts of) two other fragments found in 1934 and 1936 to form much of =
a=20
skullcap with a brain size of 1140 cc. These pieces were found at a =
higher=20
level, and appear to be more modern than the other skullcaps. (Jia and =
Huang=20
1990) (Creationist =
arguments)
Most of the study on these fossils was done by Davidson =
Black until=20
his death in 1934. Franz=20
Weidenreich replaced him and studied the fossils until leaving China =
in=20
1941. The original fossils disappeared in 1941 while being shipped to =
the United=20
States for safety during World War II, but excellent casts and =
descriptions=20
remain. Since the war, other erectus fossils have been found at =
this site=20
and others in China.
Sangiran 2, "Pithecanthropus II", Homo=20
erectus Discovered by G.H.R. von Koenigswald in 1937 at Sangiran =
on the=20
Indonesian island of Java. This fossil is a braincase that is very =
similar to=20
the first Java Man skull cap, but more complete and smaller, with a =
brain size=20
of only about 815 cc.
OH 9, "Chellean Man", Homo erectus Discovered =
by Louis =
Leakey in=20
1960 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania (Leakey 1961). Estimated age is 1.5 =
million=20
years. It consisted of a partial braincase with massive browridges and a =
brain=20
size of 1065 cc.
OH 12, "Pinhead", Homo =
erectus Discovered by=20
Margaret Cropper in 1962 at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. It is similar to =
but less=20
complete than OH 9, and smaller, with an estimated brain size of only =
750 cc. It=20
is estimated to be between 800,000 and 1200,000 years old. Anton (2004) =
has=20
found a few more pieces of this skull, but it remains very =
fragmentary.
Sangiran 17, "Pithecanthropus VIII", =
Homo=20
erectus Discovered by Sastrohamidjojo Sartono in 1969 at Sangiran =
on=20
Java. This consists of a fairly complete cranium, with a brain size of =
about=20
1000 cc. It is the most complete erectus fossil from Java. This =
skull is=20
very robust, with a slightly projecting face and huge flaring =
cheekbones. It has=20
been thought to be about 800,000 years old, but a recent dating has =
given a much=20
older figure of nearly 1.7 million years. If the older date is correct, =
it means=20
Homo erectus migrated out of Africa much earlier than previously =
thought.=20
KNM-ER 3733, Homo =
erectus (or Homo ergaster) Discovered by Bernard =
Ngeneo in 1975=20
at Koobi Fora in Kenya. Estimated age is 1.7 million years. This superb =
find=20
consisted of an almost complete cranium. The brain size is about 850 cc, =
and the=20
whole skull is similar to the Peking Man fossils. The discovery of this =
fossil=20
in the same stratum as ER =
406=20
(A. boisei) delivered the coup de grace to the single species =
hypothesis:=20
the idea that there has never been more than one hominid species at any =
point in=20
history. (Leakey and Walker 1976)
KNM-WT 15000, "Turkana Boy", Homo erectus (or =
Homo=20
ergaster) Discovered by Kamoya Kimeu in 1984 at Nariokotome near =
Lake=20
Turkana in Kenya (Brown et al. 1985; Leakey and Lewin 1992; Walker and =
Leakey=20
1993; Walker and Shipman 1996). This is an almost complete skeleton of =
an 11 or=20
12 year old boy, the only major omissions being the hands and feet. =
(Some=20
scientists believe erectus matured faster than modern humans, and =
that he=20
was really about 9 years old (Leakey and Lewin 1992).) It is the most =
complete=20
known specimen of erectus, and also one of the oldest, at 1.6 =
million=20
years. The brain size was 880 cc, and it is estimated that it would have =
been=20
910 cc at adulthood. The boy was 160 cm (5'3") tall, and would have been =
about=20
185 cm (6'1") as an adult. This is surprisingly tall, indicating that =
many=20
erectus may have been as large as modern humans. Except for the =
skull,=20
the skeleton is very similar to that of modern boys, although there are =
a number=20
of small differences. The most striking is that the holes in his =
vertebrae,=20
through which the spinal cord goes, have only about half the =
cross-sectional=20
area found in modern humans. One suggested explanation for this is that =
the boy=20
lacked the fine motor control we have in the thorax to control speech, =
implying=20
that he wasn't nearly as fluent a speaker as modern humans are (Walker =
and=20
Shipman 1996).
ATD6-69, Homo antecessor? Discovered at Atapuerca =
in Spain.=20
This is a partial face of a child who was probably about 10 to 11.5 =
years old.=20
This fossil is over 780,000 years old. (Bermudez de Castro et al. =
1997)
"Heidelberg Man", "Mauer Jaw", Homo sapiens (archaic) (also Homo=20
heidelbergensis) Discovered by gravel pit workers in 1907 near =
Heidelberg=20
in Germany. Estimated age is between 400,000 and 700,000 years. This =
find=20
consisted of a lower jaw with a receding chin and all its teeth. The jaw =
is=20
extremely large and robust, like that of Homo erectus, but the =
teeth are=20
at the small end of the erectus range. It is often classified as =
Homo=20
heidelbergensis, but has also sometimes been considered to be a =
European=20
Homo erectus.
"Rhodesian Man", "Kabwe", Homo sapiens (archaic) =
(was Homo=20
rhodesiensis) Discovered by a laborer in 1921 at Broken Hill in =
Northern=20
Rhodesia (now Kabwe in Zambia) (Woodward 1921). This was a complete =
cranium that=20
was very robust, with large brow ridges and a receding forehead. =
Estimated age=20
is between 200,000 and 125,000 years. The brain size was about 1280 cc. =
(Creation=
ist=20
arguments)
Arago XXI, "Tautavel=20
Man", Homo sapiens (archaic) (also Homo=20
heidelbergensis) Discovered at Arago in southern France in 1971 =
by Henry=20
de Lumley. Estimated age is 400,000 years. The fossil consists of a =
fairly=20
complete face, with 5 molar teeth and part of the braincase. The brain =
size was=20
about 1150 cc. The skull contains a mixture of features from archaic =
Homo=20
sapiens and Homo erectus, to which it is sometimes assigned. =
Petralona 1, Homo sapiens=20
(archaic) Discovered by villagers at Petralona in Greece in 1960. =
Estimated=20
age is 250,000-500,000 years. It could alternatively be considered to be =
a late=20
Homo erectus, and also has some Neandertal characteristics. The =
brain=20
size is 1220 cc, high for erectus but low for sapiens, and =
the=20
face is large with particularly wide jaws. (Day 1986)
Atapuerca 5, Homo sapiens=20
(archaic) Discovered in the Sima de los Huesos ("Pit of Bones") at =
the=20
Atapuerca cave site in northern Spain in 1992 and 1993 by Juan-Luis =
Arsuaga. It=20
is about 300,000 years old, with a brain size of 1125 cc. The face is =
broad with=20
a huge nasal opening, and resembles Neandertals in some traits but not =
in=20
others. This is the most complete pre-modern skull in the entire hominid =
fossil=20
record. (Arsuaga et al. 1993; Johanson and Edgar 1996)=20
Feldhofer, Neanderthal 1, Homo sapiens =
neanderthalensis Discovered by=20
Johann Fuhlrott in 1856 in a small cave at Feldhofer in the Neander =
Valley in=20
Germany. The find consisted of a skullcap, thigh bones, part of a =
pelvis, some=20
ribs, and some arm and shoulder bones. The lower left arm had been =
broken in=20
life, and as a result the bones of the left arm were smaller than those =
of the=20
right. Fuhlrott recognized it as a primitive human, but the German =
establishment=20
headed by Rudolf Virchow rejected this view, incorrectly claiming that =
it was a=20
pathological modern human. (Trinkaus and Shipman 1992) In 1999, the =
original site was=20
rediscovered, and more bones from the same specimen were recovered. =
(Creationist =
arguments)
(There were actually two earlier Neandertal finds. A partial cranium =
of a 2.5=20
year old child found in 1829 in Belgium was not recognized until 1936. =
An adult=20
cranium found on Gibraltar in 1848 gathered dust in a museum until it =
was=20
recognized as a Neandertal in 1864.)
"Spy 1 and 2", Homo sapiens neanderthalensis Discovered by =
Marcel=20
de Puydt and Max Lohest in 1886 at the Grotto of Spy (pronounced Spee) =
d'Orneau=20
in Belgium. Estimated age is about 60,000 years. This find consisted of =
two=20
almost complete skeletons. The excellent descriptions of the skeletons=20
established that they were very old, and largely discredited the idea =
that the=20
Neandertal physique was a pathological condition, but also erroneously =
concluded=20
that Neandertal Man walked with bent knees.
"Krapina Site", Homo sapiens=20
neanderthalensis Discovered by Dragutin Gorjanovic-Kramberger in =
1899=20
near Krapina in Croatia. This site yielded significant remains from two =
to three=20
dozen individuals, and teeth and jaw fragments from dozens more. When =
Gorjanovic=20
published on his finds in 1906, it confirmed for once and for all that=20
Neandertals were not pathological modern humans.
"Old Man", Homo sapiens=20
neanderthalensis Discovered by Amedee and Jean Bouyssonie in 1908 =
near=20
La-Chapelle-aux-Saints in France. It is about 50,000 years old, with a =
brain=20
size of 1620 cc. This nearly complete skeleton was reconstructed by Marcellin =
Boule, who=20
wrote a definitive and highly influential paper on it which managed to =
be=20
totally wrong in many of its conclusions. It exaggerated =
the=20
apelike characteristics of the fossil, popularizing the stereotype, =
which=20
would last for decades, of a stooping ape-man shuffling along on bent =
knees.=20
This specimen was between about 30 and 40 when he died, but had a healed =
broken=20
rib, severe arthritis of the hip, lower neck, back and shoulders, and =
had lost=20
most of his molar teeth. The fact that he survived as long as he did =
indicates=20
that Neandertals must have had a complex social structure.
"Shanidar Site", Homo sapiens=20
neanderthalensis Ralph Solecki discovered 9 Neandertal skeletons =
between=20
1953 and 1960 at the Shanidar cave in Iraq. They are thought to be =
between=20
70,000 and 40,000 years old. One of them, Shanidar 4, had apparently =
been buried=20
with offerings of flowers (although this interpretation has been =
disputed). In=20
1971 Solecki wrote a book, "Shanidar, the First =
Flower=20
People", reversing the earlier stereotypes of =
semi-human=20
brutes. Another skeleton, Shanidar 1, was partially blind, one-armed and =
crippled. His survival also is evidence of a complex social structure. =
"Saint-Cesaire Neandertal", Homo sapiens=20
neanderthalensis Discovered by Francois Leveque in 1979 near the =
village=20
of Saint-Cesaire in France. It consisted of a badly crushed skeleton. =
The skull=20
was mostly complete, with only the back of the cranium missing. It is =
dated at=20
about 35,000 years old, and is one of the latest Neandertals known. This =
find=20
was of special interest because it was found with tools that had =
previously been=20
assumed to belong to the Cro-Magnon culture, instead of the usual =
Neandertal=20
tool kit.
LB1, "Hobbit", Homo floresiensis Discovered by an =
Australian/Indonesian=20
team in 2003 at the Liang Bua cave on the Indonesian island of Flores. =
This find=20
consisted of an almost complete skull and a partial skeleton consisting =
of leg=20
bones, parts of the pelvis, hands and feet, and some other fragments. =
LB1 was an=20
adult, probably female, about 1 meter (3'3") tall with an extremely =
small brain=20
size of 417cc. The skull has human-like teeth with a receding forehead =
and no=20
chin. The fossil is 18,000 years old and was found with stone tools. =
This=20
species is thought to be a dwarf form of Homo erectus. (Brown et =
al.=20
2004, Morwood et al. 2004, Lahr and Foley 2004)
"Cro-Magnon Site", Homo sapiens sapiens (modern) Discovered by =
workmen=20
in 1868 at Cro-Magnon in France. Estimated age is 30,000 years. The site =
yielded=20
skeletons of 5 buried individuals, along with stone tools, carved =
reindeer=20
antlers, ivory pendants, and shells. The Cro-Magnons lived in Europe =
between=20
35,000 and 10,000 years ago. They are virtually identical to modern man, =
being=20
tall and muscular and slightly more robust than most modern humans. They =
were=20
skilled hunters, toolmakers and artists famous for the cave art at =
places such=20
as Lascaux, =
Chau=
vet,=20
and Altamira.
There are a number of clear trends (which were neither continuous nor =
uniform) from early australopithecines to recent humans: increasing =
brain size,=20
increasing body size, increasing use of and sophistication in tools, =
decreasing=20
tooth size, decreasing skeletal robustness. There are no clear dividing =
lines=20
between some of the later gracile australopithecines and some of the =
early=20
Homo, between erectus and archaic sapiens, or =
archaic=20
sapiens and modern sapiens.
Creationist Wayne Jackson quotes the paragraph to the left in an =
online article. Read =
my response=20
here.
Despite this, there is little consensus on what our family tree is. =
Everyone=20
accepts that the robust australopithecines (aethiopicus, =
robustus=20
and boisei) are not ancestral to us, being a side branch that =
left no=20
descendants. Whether H. habilis is descended from A. =
afarensis,=20
africanus, both of them, or neither of them, is still a matter of =
debate.=20
It is possible that none of the known australopithecines is our =
ancestor.=20
A number of new genera and species have been discovered within the =
last=20
decade (Ar. ramidus, Au. amanensis, Au. bahrelghazali, Au. garhi, =
Orrorin,=20
Kenyanthropus, Sahelanthropus) and no consensus has yet formed on =
how they=20
are related to each other or to humans. It is generally accepted that =
Homo=20
erectus is descended from Homo habilis (or, at least, some of =
the=20
fossils often assigned to habilis), but the relationship between=20
erectus, sapiens and the Neandertals is still unclear. =
Neandertal=20
affinities can be detected in some specimens of both archaic and modern=20
sapiens.